Lithium Refining & Processing

Lithium refining is the industrial conversion of lithium-bearing feedstocks into battery-grade chemicals used to manufacture cathode active materials (CAM) and key electrolyte inputs. Unlike lithium mining, which produces ore, concentrate, or brine, refining produces tightly specified lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃), lithium hydroxide monohydrate (LiOH·H₂O), and related intermediates (for example lithium chloride) after multiple purification steps. In practice, refining is frequently the scale bottleneck because “battery-grade” is a qualification outcome, not just a design specification.

Why lithium refining matters

Battery plants do not consume lithium [Li] in a raw form. They consume refined lithium chemicals that meet strict impurity limits because trace contaminants can reduce cycle life, raise impedance, increase gas generation, and worsen safety margins. Refining therefore determines not only availability, but also yield, consistency, and warranty risk downstream.

• Battery-grade chemicals are the input to CAM synthesis and electrolyte salt supply chains.
• Refining location influences qualification time, logistics cost, and policy eligibility under regional content rules.
• Ramp-up risk is common: nameplate capacity is often achieved only after extended commissioning and product qualification.

What refineries produce

The two dominant end products are lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide. Choice depends on cathode chemistry, customer process route, and local economics.

• Lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃): a primary product for many brine routes and a common precursor for additional conversion steps.
• Lithium hydroxide monohydrate (LiOH·H₂O): widely used for high-nickel cathode synthesis and some specialized CAM processes.
• Intermediates (site-dependent): lithium chloride, technical-grade carbonate, and specialty lithium compounds for non-battery markets.

Feedstocks and conversion routes

Lithium refineries are typically designed around one of two upstream feedstocks: hard-rock spodumene concentrate or lithium brines. The unit operations differ, but both converge on purification, crystallization, drying, and packaging to battery-grade specs.

Hard-rock (spodumene) conversion

• Calcination converts alpha-spodumene to beta-spodumene to improve leachability.
• Roasting and leaching (commonly sulfuric-acid based) produce a lithium-bearing solution.
• Impurities are removed via precipitation, filtration, and polishing steps.
• Product is crystallized as carbonate and/or hydroxide, then dried, packaged, and quality-released.

Brine conversion

• Brines are concentrated (often via evaporation ponds; some sites are developing direct extraction approaches).
• Impurities (for example magnesium, boron, sulfate) are managed via chemical treatment and separation steps.
• Lithium carbonate is precipitated and purified; some flows then convert carbonate to hydroxide.

Battery-grade requirements

"Battery-grade" lithium refers to lithium hydroxide or lithium carbonate that meets strict chemical purity, impurity, moisture, and consistency specifications required for cell manufacturing. While headline purity is typically above 99.5%, trace contaminants measured in parts per million — and lot-to-lot reproducibility — are often the limiting factors in qualification. Many supply agreements require statistical process control evidence and multi-month validation before high-volume approval.

• Impurity control: Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe and others must be tightly limited.
• Moisture control: especially critical for hydroxide and electrolyte pathways.
• Consistency: lot-to-lot variation can create downstream yield loss and warranty exposure.

Common bottlenecks

Conversion projects often underestimate the complexity of waste streams, reagent supply, and product qualification. The constraints below recur across jurisdictions.

• Commissioning and ramp: achieving battery-grade purity at scale can lag mechanical completion.
• Permitting: water usage, chemical handling, residue disposal, and emissions controls drive time and cost.
• Utilities: heat demand, power quality, and water-treatment capacity can limit throughput.
• Reagents and logistics: acid, lime, soda ash, and specialty reagents must be secured at scale.

Refineries and conversion plants

The table below lists representative lithium refining and conversion facilities that produce (or are building capacity to produce) lithium carbonate and/or lithium hydroxide. Status reflects publicly stated operating position, commissioning, or announced development.

Company / Operator	Facility	Location	Primary products	Status
Tesla	Tesla Lithium Refinery (Corpus Christi)	Corpus Christi, Texas, United States	Lithium hydroxide (battery-grade)	Commissioning / early-stage operations
Tianqi Lithium Energy Australia (TLEA) / IGO–Tianqi JV	Kwinana Lithium Hydroxide Plant	Kwinana, Western Australia, Australia	Lithium hydroxide	Operating (ramp / variable utilization)
Covalent Lithium (SQM / Wesfarmers JV)	Kwinana Lithium Hydroxide Refinery	Kwinana, Western Australia, Australia	Lithium hydroxide	Commissioning / ramp
Albemarle	Kemerton Lithium Hydroxide	Kemerton, Western Australia, Australia	Lithium hydroxide	Operating (constrained)
Albemarle	La Negra Conversion Plant (La Negra III/IV)	Antofagasta region, Chile	Lithium carbonate (conversion)	Operating
AMG Lithium	Bitterfeld-Wolfen Lithium Hydroxide Refinery	Saxony-Anhalt, Germany	Lithium hydroxide	Operating (module ramp)
POSCO Pilbara Lithium Solution (PPLS)	Gwangyang Lithium Hydroxide Conversion Facility	Gwangyang, South Korea	Lithium hydroxide monohydrate	Operating / expanding
Arcadium Lithium (formerly Livent)	Bessemer City Lithium Hydroxide Plant	Bessemer City, North Carolina, United States	Lithium hydroxide	Operating
Albemarle	Silver Peak (lithium chemicals from brine)	Nevada, United States	Lithium carbonate; specialty lithium hydroxide grades	Operating
CATL (via JV partner disclosures)	Jiangxi Lithium Mine and Refinery Operations	Jiangxi, China	Lithium carbonate (reported)	Operating (restarted)
Ganfeng Lithium	Mahong Lithium Hydroxide Plant	Jiangxi, China	Lithium hydroxide	Operating / expanded
Albemarle	China Mainland Conversion Sites (multiple)	China (multiple locations)	Lithium chemicals (conversion)	Operating

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