Cathode and Anode Processing

CAM · calcination · graphitization · China

Active materials set a cell's energy density, life and much of its cost. Their high-temperature steps are already electric, so the footprint follows the grid, and the grid is mostly Chinese coal and hydro.

Bar chart of process temperatures in battery material production. Cathode: precursor co-precipitation about 50 to 60 degrees C, LFP calcination about 650 to 800, NMC calcination about 700 to 950. Cell plant electrode drying about 120 to 150. Anode: carbonization about 1,000 to 1,300 and graphitization 2,800 to 3,000 degrees C, run in electric Acheson or box furnaces mostly in Inner Mongolia and Sichuan. PROCESS TEMPERATURES, CATHODE (BLUE) AND ANODE (GOLD) Precursor co-precipitation ~50-60 °C Electrode drying ~120-150 °C LFP calcination ~650-800 °C NMC calcination ~700-950 °C Anode carbonization ~1,000-1,300 °C Graphitization 2,800-3,000 °C Graphitization: electric Acheson or box furnaces, mostly in Inner Mongolia.
Cathode output in China
~85%
Anode output in China
90%+
Graphitization
2,800-3,000 °C
Hub
Industry

Finding

Cathode calcination and anode graphitization are already electric in most plants, so their carbon intensity depends on where they are built

Cathode active material (CAM) is made by co-precipitating a nickel-manganese-cobalt hydroxide precursor, mixing it with lithium hydroxide or carbonate and firing it in electric roller hearth kilns, under oxygen for high-nickel NMC and NCA and under nitrogen for LFP. Synthetic graphite anode is carbonized and then graphitized near 3,000 °C in electric furnaces, one of the most power-hungry steps in the battery chain.

China makes about 85% of cathode material and more than 90% of anode material. Graphitization clustered in Inner Mongolia and Sichuan for cheap coal and hydro power, which is why its carbon footprint is high outside hydro regions. Leading CAM makers include Hunan Yuneng, Dynanonic, Wanrun and Ronbay (China), EcoPro BM, L&F and POSCO Future M (Korea), Umicore and BASF (Europe) and Sumitomo Metal Mining (Japan); anode leaders are BTR, Shanshan, Putailai and Shangtai.

Policy is reshaping the map. China added LFP cathode preparation technology to its export-restriction list in 2025, and the US set antidumping duties on Chinese active anode material. North American anode projects include Novonix (synthetic graphite, Tennessee), Syrah (natural graphite, Louisiana) and Group14 and Sila (silicon, Washington). Electrode slurry mixing, coating and drying belong to cell plants, where NMP solvent drying ovens are a large load and dry-electrode coating removes them.

Process

The electrified process chain

Cathode, anode and electrode steps, with the equipment and where the energy goes.

Active material and electrode process steps
StepEquipmentRoleEnergy note
Precursor co-precipitation (pCAM)Stirred reactors, filters, dryersMakes NMC or NCA hydroxide precursorPumps and agitators; low temperature
Lithiation and calcination (CAM)Electric roller hearth and rotary kilnsFires precursor with lithium saltLargest CAM load; oxygen atmosphere for high nickel
LFP synthesisMills, spray dryers, nitrogen kilnsIron phosphate plus lithium to LFPKilns electric; mostly in China
Natural graphite spheronizationMills, classifiers, purificationShapes and purifies flakeAcid or high-temperature purification
Synthetic graphite graphitizationAcheson and box furnacesConverts carbon to crystalline graphiteMost power-hungry step in the anode chain
Silicon anode materialCVD reactors, furnacesSilicon-carbon compositesSilane-based CVD; scaling now
Slurry mixing, coating, drying (cell plant)Mixers, coaters, NMP dryer ovensMakes electrodesDryer ovens and solvent recovery; dry coating removes them

Segments

Material segments

Chemistry choice decides which steps and which suppliers a cell maker depends on.

Active material segments
SegmentMain producersDriversConstraints
NMC and NCA cathodeRonbay, Easpring, EcoPro BM, L&F, POSCO Future M, Umicore, Sumitomo Metal MiningLong-range EVs, high energy densityNickel and cobalt supply; oxygen kilns
LFP and LMFP cathodeHunan Yuneng, Dynanonic, Wanrun, LopalLow cost, long life, BESSConcentrated in China; technology export limits
Synthetic graphite anodeBTR, Shanshan, Putailai, Shangtai, NovonixFast charge, consistencyGraphitization power
Natural graphite anodeBTR, POSCO Future M, SyrahLower cost and energyFlake supply mostly China and Mozambique
Silicon anodeGroup14, Sila, Amprius, BTRHigher energy densitySwelling; new equipment
Lithium metal anodeQuantumScape (anode-free), Solid Power, Chinese labsSolid-state cellsEarly; handling and safety

Sources

Sources and scope

Scope
Cathode and Anode Processing
Sources
IEA Global EV Outlook and Critical Minerals Outlook; Benchmark Mineral Intelligence; company reports; MOFCOM; US Commerce Department
Updated
October 2026