Software-Defined Vehicles

six layers · OTA · learning loop

A good platform makes an SDV possible. Software ownership and a data loop make it real.

The SDV capability stack, from the bottom: platform (battery, motors, voltage); compute and E/E (central computer, zones); OTA reach (which domains can update); software ownership (in-house OS and apps); operations (who runs and monitors the fleet); and the AI learning loop where fleet data trains models. SDV CAPABILITY STACK (PLATFORM IS LAYER ONE) 6 AI learning loopfleet data trains models 5 Operationswho runs and monitors the fleet 4 Software ownershipin-house OS and apps 3 OTA reachwhich domains can update 2 Compute and E/Ecentral computer, zones 1 Platformbattery, motors, voltage
Layers
6
Platform
Layer 1 only
Tesla recalls via OTA, 2025
98%
Industry OTA share
~15%
Hub
Systems

Finding

A software-defined vehicle is defined by who owns the software and the data loop, not by the platform alone

Two EVs on similar hardware can age very differently: one gains features every few weeks, the other stays as it shipped. The difference is how much of the stack the automaker controls. A software-defined vehicle (SDV) needs central compute and zonal E/E, OTA updates that reach powertrain, battery, charging and driver-assistance software - not just infotainment - an in-house operating system, and a fleet data loop that trains and redeploys models.

The OTA gap shows how few vehicles meet that bar. Tesla fixed 98% of its 2025 recalls by software update; across the US industry, only about 15-16% of recalled vehicles in Q3 and Q4 2025 could be fixed over the air. Legacy automakers are buying their way in: Volkswagen's joint venture with Rivian licenses Rivian's zonal architecture and software. Chinese makers - Xiaomi, XPeng, NIO, Li Auto - build their own stacks. See SDV Capabilities Explained and Most SDV-Advanced EVs.

Layers

The six layers

SDV capability layers
LayerQuestion it answersExample signal
PlatformWhat is physically possible?800 V, cell-to-body, sensor provisions
Compute and E/ECan software reach every function?Central computer, few zonal controllers
OTA reachWhich domains can be updated remotely?Powertrain, BMS, ADAS, body, charging
Software ownershipWho writes and controls the code?In-house OS; few supplier black boxes
OperationsWho monitors and acts on the fleet?Remote diagnostics, fleet health
AI learning loopDoes fleet data improve the product?Driving models trained on fleet video

Sources

Sources and scope

Scope
Software-Defined Vehicles
Sources
NHTSA and BizzyCar recall data (2025); Tesla; Rivian and Volkswagen
Updated
October 2026